Socrates – Biography and Philosophical Thought

Socrates lived in Athens (470 BC or 469 BC – 399 BC). He was an Athenian Greek philosopher and one of the most important figures in Greek and world thought and culture, and one of the founders of Western philosophy. His significance for ancient Greek philosophy is indicated by the fact that all Greek philosophers before him are called Pre-Socratic.

Socrates had a large circle of loyal friends, mainly young men from aristocratic families from all over Greece. Some of them became known as founders of philosophical schools of various directions. The most famous were Plato and Antisthenes in Athens, Euclid in Megara, Phaedo in Elis, and Aristippus in Cyrene. The main sources for his life are primarily his student Plato, the historian Xenophon, the philosopher Aristotle, and the comedic playwright Aristophanes.

His Life

He was the son of Sophroniscus and Phaenarete from the deme of Alopece. He married Xanthippe at an advanced age. Information about Socrates’ life is varied, and scholars of the ancient Greek world can draw interesting conclusions. Various notable authors have dealt with him since antiquity, each adding new aspects of his life.

Thus, Porphyry informs us that Socrates, as was customary in ancient Athens, initially engaged in the art of sculpture, his father’s profession, who was a stonecutter, before abandoning it “for the sake of education,” as Lucian later wrote.

At the age of 17, he met the philosopher Archelaus, who transmitted to him a passion for philosophy and convinced him to dedicate himself to it. A deeper psychological side is revealed by Plato, who in his “Apology” presents Socrates considering philosophical engagement as a divine command.

Here, Socrates can be characterized as inspired by God, as he mentions his strong instinct, as an internal impulse, dictating which actions and engagements he should follow. He often stated that he heard a voice within him that prevented him from doing what was not right, which he called his “daemon.”

Many, especially young people, followed his philosophical investigations, finding pleasure in hearing him speak and discuss social, political, ethical, and religious topics. Thus, a circle formed around him, which did not constitute a school because Socrates did not teach systematically but engaged in dialogue at every point in the city with people of all social classes, unlike the Sophists who took money from their students.

He avoided political involvement and preferred to follow his independent path, except when called upon by his homeland. Thus, he participated in three campaigns during the Peloponnesian War: the siege of Potidaea, the battle at Delium in Boeotia in 424 BC (“I was with him during the retreat,” says Laches in the Platonic dialogue of the same name, “and if everyone were like Socrates, our city would never have suffered that disaster.”), and in 422 BC at the battle of Amphipolis, where he saved Alcibiades’ life and showed incredible endurance in hardships, as described by Alcibiades himself in Plato’s Symposium.

In 406 BC, during the trial of the ten Athenian generals when the tribe to which he belonged held the prytany, he refused to succumb to the demand to bring to a vote in the Assembly an illegal proposal – to judge the generals collectively rather than individually as required by law, who had been accused of not collecting the shipwrecked after the naval battle at Arginusae, which was legally unacceptable in Athenian democracy. In 404 BC, he similarly opposed the Thirty Tyrants when he refused to arrest a democratic citizen, Leon of Salamis.

Apology of Socrates

In 399 BC, he was accused of impiety towards the gods and corrupting the youth. The philosopher was condemned to death based on the accusation. The motive of the charge was considered to be his teaching, which influenced the youth, and his liberalism was seen as subversive. However, the essential motive was his rivalry with prominent men of the time. One of the main reasons for his accusation was that one of his most significant students had participated in the tyranny’s rule.

During the trial, Socrates showed courage, and the announcement of the penalty did not disturb his divine tranquility. After his condemnation, he remained in prison for 30 days because the law forbade the execution of the death penalty before the sacred ship returned from the Delian festivals. From Plato’s dialogue “Crito,” we learn that Socrates could have been saved if he wished, as his students had the means to help him escape. Socrates refused and, as a law-abiding citizen and true philosopher, awaited death peacefully and serenely, drinking the hemlock as the law prescribed.

Nonetheless, in May 2012, Socrates’ trial was retried by Counselors of the Areopagus and well-known lawyers and judges, using the laws of that era, and as a result, Socrates was acquitted of the charges brought against him.

Socrates, like Pythagoras, left no writings. Therefore, it is very difficult to determine the exact content of his philosophy, and practically everything we know about Socrates comes mainly from what his students wrote about him, as well as from certain authors who focused on studying his personality. According to Socrates, God does not philosophize because He possesses wisdom, but man philosophizes because his existence is finite.

In Socrates’ time, with the Sophists, there was a turn of philosophy towards man and useful virtue, while previously the main subject of Pre-Socratic philosophy was nature. However, the Sophists, as non-philosophers, did not delve deeply into studying the real essence of man, something that started with Socrates, who first considered the soul as the real essence of man and virtue as what allows the fulfillment of human nature through the search and improvement of the soul. Aristotle acknowledges this turn of spirit with the phrase “since Socrates, the inquiry into the matters of nature ceased, philosophers turned towards useful virtue and politics.”

Socratic Method (Maieutic)

The maieutic method, combined with the use of irony, was characteristic of Socratic teaching. According to this method, Socrates, during his discussions, pretending complete ignorance about the topic under discussion each time, tried through questions to elicit the truth from his interlocutor.

Essentially, Socrates assumed the role of conscience, and through this process of questioning and answering, he created a spirit of dialogue in the discussion. The interlocutor, answering these questions, would reach a conclusion – the truth for Socrates – on their own.

The method was called maieutic because, like the midwife (a profession also practiced by Phaenarete, Socrates’ mother) brings the newborn into the world, so Socrates or the interlocutor taking the role of conscience extracts the truth from the interlocutor.
Dialectic

Dialectic, initially meaning ‘dialogue’, was a form of dialogue used by Socrates, where the philosopher tried to lead his interlocutor to discover the deeper truth of things, one that remains independent of circumstances and conditions. In this method, Socrates allowed his interlocutor to freely express his opinion on the topic under discussion, initially considering this opinion as complete and grounded. Then, through the process of questioning and answering, he demonstrated through simple examples the extreme consequences of these opinions, thereby proving their unsoundness. He thus led his interlocutor to discover new conclusions and new approaches to truth.

The essence of this method lies in its use of questions and answers to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas. The term “maieutic” derives from the Greek word for “midwifery,” reflecting Socrates’ belief that his role was to help others give birth to their own understanding and wisdom. This essay explores the historical context, fundamental principles, and contemporary applications of the Socratic Method in education, philosophy, and beyond.

The Socratic Method was developed in the 5th century BCE in Athens, a period marked by a burgeoning interest in philosophy, science, and democracy. Socrates, unlike his predecessors, did not write down his teachings; instead, his method and ideas were recorded by his disciples, most notably Plato. In dialogues such as “The Apology,” “Euthyphro,” “Meno,” and “Phaedrus,” Plato illustrates how Socrates engaged interlocutors in discussions that revealed their assumptions and contradictions, leading them towards deeper insights.

Socrates’ method was a response to the Sophists, who were skilled in rhetoric and known for their ability to argue any side of an issue. Socrates sought to distinguish genuine knowledge from mere opinion by employing a process of questioning that exposed the interlocutor’s lack of understanding, thereby encouraging a pursuit of true wisdom.

Fundamental Principles

The Socratic Method is grounded in several key principles. The first principle, elenchus, involves a series of probing questions designed to uncover contradictions in the interlocutor’s beliefs, leading them to a realization of their own ignorance. Dialectic is the dialogical process wherein two or more participants engage in reasoned discussion to uncover truth or reach a deeper understanding.

Socrates often employed irony, pretending ignorance and asking seemingly naive questions that prompted his interlocutors to think more deeply about their assumptions. Maieutics refers to Socrates’ role as a “midwife” of ideas, helping others give birth to their own understanding through guided questioning. Finally, aporia is the state of puzzlement or perplexity that Socratic questioning often leads to, considered a productive starting point for genuine inquiry.
Applications in Education

The Socratic Method has profoundly influenced educational practices, particularly in the development of critical thinking skills. In the classroom, it encourages active learning and engagement by prompting students to question their assumptions and articulate their reasoning. This method is particularly effective in law schools, where it is used to teach students to think analytically and argue persuasively.

In contemporary education, the Socratic Method is applied through various techniques, including open-ended questioning, dialogue-driven instruction, and problem-based learning. These approaches foster an environment where students are not passive recipients of information but active participants in their learning process. By encouraging students to explore and articulate their thoughts, the Socratic Method helps them develop the ability to think critically and independently.

Applications in Philosophy and Other Disciplines

Beyond education, the Socratic Method is foundational in the practice of philosophy. Philosophers use it to explore complex concepts, challenge prevailing ideas, and develop new theories. By questioning assumptions and critically examining arguments, philosophers can uncover deeper truths and advance knowledge in their field.

The Method also finds applications in other disciplines such as psychology, where it is used in therapeutic settings to help clients explore their thoughts and beliefs. In business and management, it is employed to foster critical thinking and decision-making skills among leaders and employees.

In today’s world, characterized by rapid information exchange and complex societal challenges, the Socratic Method remains highly relevant. It promotes a culture of inquiry and dialogue, essential for addressing issues that require nuanced understanding and collaborative problem-solving. By encouraging individuals to think deeply and question their assumptions, the Socratic Method helps cultivate a more informed and reflective society.

Socrates and Philosophical Thought

It has been said about Socrates that he “brought philosophy down from the stars to the earth,” because thanks to his personality, philosophers ceased to concern themselves with natural phenomena and began to focus on man and his society. In reality, many philosophers before Socrates dealt with political problems, while Democritus also dealt with moral issues.

However, Socrates was the one who truly turned philosophical thought to these subjects. The reason Socratic interests marked the history of philosophy in such a way must be sought in the Socratic way of thinking, in the fact that Socrates did not care about the correct way of life and action, either on a personal or social level. Unlike the Sophists, he was not interested in these for utilitarian purposes.

He wanted to create a solid ground upon which the concepts of good, virtue, and wisdom could be definitively and irrevocably established. Just as the first philosophers sought the primary principle of creation, so Socrates sought the principle of every moral concept, unaffected by historical and social conditions or the perception ability of each person. He sought the absolute and rejected the relative, studying the moral essence and rejecting moral phenomena.

Inductive Reasoning Method

The inductive reasoning method, as applied by Socrates, forms a crucial part of his dialectical approach to philosophical inquiry. Unlike deductive reasoning, which starts with general premises and arrives at specific conclusions, inductive reasoning begins with specific observations and moves towards broader generalizations. S

ocrates’ use of inductive reasoning is evident in his dialogues, where he systematically examines particular instances to draw more general truths.

Socrates often engaged in conversations that focused on specific cases or examples. By meticulously analyzing these examples, he encouraged his interlocutors to identify commonalities and underlying principles. This method allowed Socrates to guide others in developing definitions and understanding abstract concepts through concrete instances. For example, in dialogues such as “Euthyphro,” Socrates probes the concept of piety by asking Euthyphro to provide specific examples of pious actions. Through a series of questions and critical examination of these examples, Socrates leads Euthyphro to a deeper exploration of what constitutes piety, moving from particular instances to a more general definition.

The strength of the inductive method lies in its ability to reveal broader truths that are not immediately apparent from isolated examples. By drawing connections between specific cases, Socrates helped his interlocutors recognize patterns and underlying principles. This approach not only clarified abstract concepts but also exposed inconsistencies and gaps in their understanding.

Inductive reasoning was instrumental in Socrates’ mission to foster critical thinking and self-awareness among his followers. By challenging them to derive general principles from specific observations, he encouraged a more reflective and analytical approach to knowledge. This method also underscored the importance of questioning and examining one’s beliefs rather than accepting them at face value.

In contemporary applications, the inductive reasoning method remains a vital tool in various fields, including science, law, and education. It encourages a bottom-up approach to inquiry, where empirical evidence and specific observations form the basis for broader theories and conclusions. This method promotes a more nuanced and evidence-based understanding of complex issues, aligning with Socrates’ vision of a thoughtful and informed pursuit of knowledge.

Socrates’ inductive reasoning method exemplifies a powerful approach to philosophical inquiry and critical thinking. By beginning with specific examples and working towards general truths, Socrates fostered a deeper understanding of complex concepts and encouraged a reflective and analytical mindset. This method’s enduring relevance highlights its foundational role in the pursuit of wisdom and knowledge, continuing to influence various disciplines and educational practices today.

Socrates and Plato

The relationship between Socrates and Plato is one of the most significant in the history of Western philosophy. Socrates, known for his method of questioning and dialogue, was the teacher of Plato, who went on to become one of the most influential philosophers of all time. Their interaction not only shaped Plato’s philosophical outlook but also laid the foundation for much of Western philosophical thought.

Socrates’ influence on Plato was profound and multifaceted. Through Socratic dialogue, Plato was introduced to rigorous questioning and critical analysis, which became foundational to his own philosophical method. Socratic themes, such as the emphasis on ethical inquiry and the search for universal definitions of virtues, permeate Plato’s works.

Plato’s early dialogues, such as “Euthyphro,” “Apology,” “Crito,” and “Phaedo,” are considered to closely reflect the historical Socrates’ teachings and methods. These works emphasize the Socratic belief in the pursuit of virtue and knowledge as the highest goals in life, and the idea that an unexamined life is not worth living.

The teacher-student relationship between Socrates and Plato is one of the most famous intellectual partnerships in history. Through Plato’s writings, the philosophical methods and ideas of Socrates were preserved and disseminated, profoundly impacting subsequent generations of philosophers. Plato’s works ensure that Socratic thought continued to be a central subject of study, discussion, and inspiration throughout the centuries.

Plato’s establishment of the Academy also provided a structural foundation for future philosophical inquiry and education. The legacy of Socrates, as presented by Plato, helped shape the intellectual trajectory of Western philosophy, influencing figures such as Aristotle, the Stoics, the Skeptics, and many others.

Death of Socrates

The death of Socrates is one of the most poignant and philosophically significant events in ancient history. It marks the end of the life of a philosopher who profoundly influenced Western thought through his method of inquiry and dedication to seeking truth and virtue.

In 399 BCE, Socrates was tried and condemned to death by the Athenian court on charges of impiety and corrupting the youth. The political and social context of Athens at the time was turbulent, with recent experiences of war, political instability, and shifting power dynamics influencing public sentiment.

The trial of Socrates was not just a legal proceeding but a reflection of the larger conflicts within Athenian society. Accused of introducing new deities and corrupting the morals of the young men of Athens, Socrates stood before a jury of his peers. His defense, as recorded by Plato in the “Apology,” was unapologetically philosophical. He questioned his accusers and sought to reveal the lack of substance in the charges against him, emphasizing his role as a social and moral gadfly, tasked with challenging complacency and ignorance.

Despite his compelling defense, Socrates was found guilty by a narrow margin and sentenced to death by drinking a cup of hemlock. In Plato’s “Crito,” Socrates’ friends urge him to escape from prison and live in exile, but he refuses. Socrates argues that he must respect the laws of the city, even if they result in his unjust execution, as a matter of principle and integrity. His decision underscores his commitment to his philosophical beliefs and the importance of living a just life.

Plato’s “Phaedo” provides a detailed account of Socrates’ final moments, surrounded by his closest friends and disciples. In his final conversation, Socrates discusses the immortality of the soul and expresses his belief that death is a transition to another form of existence, where true philosophers will find eternal truth and wisdom. His calm and composed demeanor in the face of death exemplifies his philosophical teachings.

Socrates drinks the hemlock without fear or hesitation, continuing to engage in philosophical dialogue until the effects of the poison take hold. His final words are a request to offer a sacrifice, symbolizing his continued adherence to religious and social customs even in death.