History of the Peloponnesian war
The Peloponnesian War, which raged from 431 to 404 BC, was an ancient Greek military conflict, fought by Athens and its empire against the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta. The name of the war derives from the Peloponnesus, a peninsula in southern Greece where Sparta and its allies were located. This war is considered one of the seminal events of ancient history and its chronicler, the Athenian general and historian Thucydides, provides one of the early and definitive works of historical narrative in his “History of the Peloponnesian War”.
The seeds of conflict were sown in the preceding years, following the Persian Wars (499-449 BC) which had united various Greek city-states, including Athens and Sparta, against the external threat posed by the Persian Empire. After the Persian defeat, Athens emerged as a naval superpower while Sparta remained dominant on land, each heading different leagues or alliances of city-states. Athens led the Delian League, a coalition of maritime city-states, and Sparta headed the Peloponnesian League, a consortium of land-based city-states in the Peloponnese. Over time, Athens’ expansionist policies and its growing power began to alarm Sparta and its allies, leading to increasing tensions between the two blocs.
The war was fought in three phases, starting with the Archidamian War (431-421 BC), named after the Spartan king Archidamus II. This phase saw a series of battles, sieges, and skirmishes across Greece, with neither side able to secure a decisive advantage. A temporary cessation of hostilities was achieved with the signing of the Peace of Nicias in 421 BC, but the peace was fragile and short-lived.
The war flared up again with the Sicilian Expedition (415-413 BC), an ill-fated Athenian attempt to expand its influence by conquering the city of Syracuse in Sicily. The expedition ended in a disastrous defeat for Athens, with a great loss of men and ships, significantly weakening its military and naval power.
The final phase of the war, known as the Decelean War or the Ionian War (412-404 BC), witnessed a renewal of hostilities across Greece and in the eastern Aegean. Sparta, bolstered by Persian support, ramped up its military operations, and gradually wore down Athenian resistance. The war concluded with the siege and subsequent surrender of Athens in 404 BC, marking a shift in the balance of power in ancient Greece and ending the city-state’s golden era.
The consequences of the Peloponnesian War were profound. Athens’ defeat resulted in the loss of its empire, a period of oligarchic rule, and a significant loss of its former military and economic power. The war brought devastation to Greece, significantly weakening the major city-states and paving the way for the eventual conquest of Greece by the Kingdom of Macedon, heralding the end of the classical era of ancient Greek civilization.
The Peloponnesian War is remembered not only for its military engagements but also for its exploration of power politics, human nature, and the catastrophic consequences of war, themes eloquently explored in Thucydides’ narrative. Moreover, the war and its intricate examination provide a rich source of study and analogies for military strategists, political theorists, and historians alike, making it a significant chapter in the annals of human history.
The causes
The basic cause of the Peloponnesian Wars was the growth of the Athenian Empire, and the development of Athenian control over the commercial and political life of the Aegean. Athens allowed free trade in the Aegean by her consent. Athenian agents decided the destination of every vessel that left the grain ports of the north. Athens defended this domination as a vital necessity as she was dependent upon imported food and was determined to guard the routes by which that food came.
The sums that the Ionian cities had contributed for defense against Persia were used for the adornment of Athens and periodically the assessment for Athenian services grew until it was some 460 talents (millions) per year.
Athens reserved to Athenian courts the right to try all cases, arising within the Confederacy, that involved Athenian citizens. If any city resisted it was reduced by force; so Pericles with efficient dispatch suppressed rebellions in Aegina (457), Euboea (446) and Samos (440).
Between 431 and 404 BC the Greek world was convulsed by the monumental confrontation of Athens and Sparta. Most of the Greek states were involved as allies of one or the other superpower, and the war produced suffering on a scale previously unknown to the Greeks. By the time the war ended. Athens had been defeated, her navy destroyed, and her empire dissolved.
The Rivals: Delian League – Peloponnesian League
Delian League
Already in the early 470s Athens had based on Delos a new alliance or league of cities with a common treasury filled by taxation and a common military policy determined more and more by Athens. The increasing domination of the Athenian fleet was a development made possible by the victory at Plataiai and Mycale.
Step by step, Athens itself became a fortified city, and a great military power. In 475 Eion, the strongest Persian position west of the Hellespont, fell to Kimon son of Miltiades, then the priate island of Skyros fell. That cleared a route to the timber, the silver and perhaps the gold which were coming out of Thrace. Kimon went on to bring the Lycian and Carian cities of southwest Asia Minor back into the sphere of Greece and to complete the liberation of the Greeks from Persia with a victory by land and sea at once, at the estuary in southern Asia Minor in about 468 B.C.
When any city seceded from the Delian league, a severe sanction was automatically applied, as if the offense were desertion to the Persians. Karystos in south Euboea was brought into the league by force, the loyalty of Naxos was forcibly renewed, and when Thasos rebelled against Athenian control of a gold mine on the mainland, Thasos was defeated at sea, her fleet confiscated and her city walls pulled down in 463 B.C. Thasos had appealed against Athens to Sparta, but the Spartans were busy murdering their own rebellious serfs.
Athens “decided which states should supply money for the war against Persia and which should provide ships. The purpose of the league was to take revenge for what they had suffered by ravaging the Great King’s territory.” [Thucy. I.96.]
Ionian cities on the west coast of Anatolia, the Hellespont and the Propontis, and most of the Aegean islands formed the nucleus of the alliance. Chios, Samos, Lesbos, and dome of the other states with a naval tradition provided ships. The remainder brought annual tribute to the treasury on Delos. Every member took an oath of loyalty which was permanently binding.
Peloponnesian League
Loose military alliance led by Sparta and formed c. 550 B.C. (Boeotia, Phocis and other states were allies of the league). Formed by Sparta after its victory over Argos, it included all Peloponnesian states except Argos and Achaea. It was a loose confederacy whose members committed themselves to supply military contingents in the common interest. Meetings were held at Sparta, and each member sent representatives. Corinth readily joined for Corinth was a natural enemy of Argos, while her commercial rival, Aegina, was a friend of Argos. Megara was also enrolled. Athens became a member for a brief period c. 510 B.C.
Spartan-dominated military alliance. Based on treaties between Sparta and other Peloponnesian States negotiated initially in the 6th century B.C. and then fashioned into a permanent alliance just before 500. Sparta held command in war and summoned and presided over the assembly of allies. Only after the majority of the assembly where each ally cast one vote, had agreed to a proposal for war could Sparta demand the support of all parties.
Sparta itself may not have cast a vote in the Assembly but exercised considerable influence over its decisions by its power to refuse to call a meeting except to consider proposals that it approved. When no League war was in progress, the members could carry n separate wars even with each other. Thus the League could not support every allied State in war.
To secure defense against aggression from the League as such, it was necessary to first convince Sparta and next the Assembly. Athens, at the time of its surrender in 404, and subsequently other allies were forced to accept treaties pledging complete obedience on matters of war and peace. Gradually the League evolved toward an empire but the process was not concluded before the collapse of Spartan power and the League’s dissolution in 366 B.C.
How did the Peloponnesian war begin?
A) The Corfiots who were fighting against the metropolis of Corinth asked for and received the help of the Athenians, which was considered a violation of the Thirty Years’ Peace.
B) The Corinthians push Potidea to defect from the Athenian alliance
C) In retaliation, Pericles forbids the ships of the Megarians, allies of Sparta, to enter the ports of the Athenian alliance (this decision was called the “megarian resolution”).
Archidamian War (431-421 BC)
The Spartan king Archidamus invades and plunders the Attic countryside with his army. In the 2nd year of the war, a deadly epidemic breaks out in Athens, killing 1/3 of Athens. of the people with Pericles among the many victims (he dies in 429 BC) and as a result demagogic politicians dominate the city, i.e. those who lead the people astray for their own personal benefit. Athens faces defections from its allies due to the economic pressures it puts on them, while the war is transferred by the Spartans to Macedonia (distraction tactics, i.e. distracting the enemy’s attention from the real objective). At the battle of Amphipolis with the ambiguous result kills both the 2 pro-war generals, the Spartan Brasidas and the Athenian Cleon.
The battle of Sphakteria (425 BC)
The battle of Sphakteria (425 BC) is the second stage of the battle that ended with the surrender of the Spartan army (Peloponnesian War). The chain of events that led to this almost unprecedented disaster began when an Athenian force under Demosthenes landed on the rocky promontory of Pylos, southwest of the Peloponnese, and established a fortified position. The Peloponnesian army under King Agi abandoned the invasion of Attica and returned to the Peloponnese, while the forces already in Sparta moved west to deal with the new threat.
Because Demosthenes was a serious problem, the Spartans gathered their fleet at Pylos, with the result that he found himself besieged by land and sea. The Athenian position was on a promontory at one end of the gulf of Pylos. The island of Sphakteria which was outside the mouth of the gulf had been captured by the Spartans.
The Spartan fleet moved into the bay, trapping the Athenians and preventing any attempt at supply and resupply. At the Battle of Pylos the Athenians managed to repel a double attack by the Spartans, but were literally saved by the arrival of the Athenian fleet, which inflicted a heavy defeat on the Spartan counterpart in the inner bay, lifting the blockade of Pylos.
A force of 420 Spartan hoplites, under the command of Epitadas son of Molobros, found themselves trapped in Sphakteria. The Spartans responded by sending senior officials to Pylos to examine the situation. When it became clear that they could not hope for supplies or to save the hoplites, they asked the Athenians for a truce.
The biggest weakness in the Spartan system was the lack of “similars” and as a result the loss of 420 Spartans was a gap that could not be filled. This was reflected in the terms they agreed with the Athenians. Every warship that had taken part in the previous battles and every warship in Lacedaemon would be surrendered to the Athenians during the armistice. The Spartans would cease all attacks on Pylos, while the Athenians would cease attacks on Sphakteria and allow food to be made available on the island. The truce would remain in effect while Spartan representatives traveled to Athens to negotiate peace terms.
But the peace negotiations and terms did not satisfy the Athenians. They demanded the return of the territories they lost at the end of the first Peloponnesian war, and when negotiations broke down, they refused to abide by the terms of the armistice and did not return the warships. The truce lasted 20 days.
After negotiations failed, fighting resumed. The Spartans continued their attacks on the Athenians at Pylos, while the Athenians maintained a naval blockade of Sphakteria. While both sides were under siege, the Spartans made efforts to transport supplies to their troops. Volunteers were called to try to carry supplies to the island, for a fee and freedom as a reward for the helots. Some waited for the right weather and then sailed to the island at speed, destroying the ships but gaining the reward. Others swam underwater, carrying items protected by skins.
The campaign in Sicily (415 – 413 BC)
Alcibiades, who dominates Athens, persuades the municipality to campaign in Sicily, pretending to send aid to the city of Egesta, which was at war with Selinunda. Three generals are appointed: Alcibiades, Lamachus and Nikias (who does not agree with the campaign).
However, once they reach Sicily, Alcibiades is recalled to Athens to be tried for impiety, as his political enemies accuse him of cutting off the heads of Hermes (columns with the head of Hermes that served as signposts in the city). He prefers to escape to Sparta and betray his homeland by giving its enemies two pieces of advice that are disastrous for his city:
a) to send an army to Sicily to help their Syracusian allies and
b) to occupy and fortify Decelia in Attica, so that Athens does not communicate with
outdoors .
The Spartan general Gylippos arrives in Sicily and disaster follows for the great Athenian army. According to the historian Thucydides: “Nothing existed that was not lost
and few of many returned home
The Decelean War (413 – 404 BC)
In this phase, the Persians appear in the role of regulator of things: following them advice of Alcibiades (now in Asia Minor) for maintaining the war between Athenians and Spartans, help the Spartans financially to build a fleet and to dominate the Aegean. The Athenians put Alcibiades back in command of the fleet, but they are defeated in Samos by the Spartan general Lysander. Then the Athenians with defeat the general Konon in the naval battle of Arginousa 406 BC, (but execute the 6 chief generals, because they did not manage due to the stormy sea to gather them
shipwrecked), but suffer great destruction from Lysander in the Aegos Potamis in 405 (Lysander won by trickery and surprise).
Defeated and blockaded by land and sea, the Athenians make peace with
derogatory terms:
1) surrender all but 12 of their warships
2) demolish the Long Walls and the walls of Piraeus
3) to accept back all political exiles and
4) to follow the Spartans, having the same friends and enemies as them.
411 BC The oligarchic movement in Athens
During the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), and more specifically on the 14th of the month of Thargilion (June 9) of 411 BC, an oligarchic movement took place in Athens, which overthrew the democratic state and established the so-called Beginning of the Four Hundred.
After the disastrous campaign of the Athenians in Sicily (415-413 BC) the democratic state in Athens began to falter. Its wealthy inhabitants, who shouldered the costs of the war, faced financial difficulties and planned its overthrow and the establishment of an oligarchic state. In fact, they did not hesitate to resort to terrorism in order to achieve their goal. Prominent democratic leaders, such as Androcles, were assassinated by groups of young aristocrats.
The oligarchic movement was led by the keen orator Antiphon, who operated mainly from the background. Other important personalities of the oligarchs were the demagogues Phrynichos and Peisandros, once mortal rivals and now allies for the common cause, and the moderate Theramenes.
The oligarchs demanded a cut in spending and the limitation of active citizens to only those who were “financially and physically” able to benefit the city. For them it was the only way to save Athens, which had lost its military advantage in its confrontation with Sparta.
The conspirators first won over the Church of the Municipality when they announced that Persia was willing to help Athens financially through the mediation of Alcibiades. However, when he did not keep his promises, the oligarchs could not back down, in an Athens that was in a state of disarray.
They convened the Church of the Municipality and proposed to create, with a mixed system of appointment and election, the House of Four Hundred, which would have absolute powers, while the war lasted. This Parliament could consult a body of 5,000 citizens, whenever it considered it necessary.
The Four Hundred, consisting mainly of extreme oligarchs, were unwilling to share power with the Pentakisili. They imposed their will and dissolved the democratically elected House of 500. The overthrow of democracy had been accomplished.
The coup plotters could not have maintained their power if they did not have the consent of the mighty Athenian fleet, which at that time was anchored in Samos. They did not succeed, which contributed to the death of their venture.
The crews, as soon as they learned of the movement in Athens, swore allegiance to democracy, deposed their leaders and elected new ones. Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus were two of them. The new leaders of the fleet recalled Alcibiades and declared their intention to continue the war against Sparta.
In Athens, the new oligarchic government suffered from internal problems from the start, as a conflict broke out within it between moderate and extreme elements. The moderates, led by Thirameni, demanded the replacement of the Four Hundred with an enlarged oligarchic body of 5,000, in which representatives from the lower classes (couples and above) would also participate.
Under pressure, the extreme oligarchs under Phrynicus were ready to make peace with the Spartans, sacrificing hegemony and even the independence of the city. At the same time, they began to wall the Hetionia peninsula (today’s Drapetsona), at the entrance to Piraeus.
The rumors of Thiramenes, that the fort was intended to facilitate the landing of the Spartans, provoked the reaction of the hoplites, who demolished it. Phrynichos also fell victim to these rumors, who was murdered. After this development the moderate oligarchs took the upper hand and installed the “principle of 5,000”, in September 411 BC.
Thucydides praises the new polity, which was a combination of oligarchic and democratic elements. Of the leaders of the extreme oligarchs, Antiphon was sentenced to death and drank hemlock, while Peisander fled to the Spartans. Democracy in Athens was restored in June 410 BC, after the double victory of the Athenian fleet at Cyzicus.
Results of the Peloponnesian war
The Peloponnesian wars were destructive in every way and would lead to the decline of the whole of Greece: Thousands were the dead of the war, cities had turned into ruins, the countryside had abandoned by the rural population and the economy had suffered a serious blow. Equally important was the collapse of moral values: in human relations the deceit, in the place of religious faith, doubt prevailed, the Persians were summoned by the Greeks to interfere in Greek affairs.
Spartan Hegemony: The most immediate result of the Peloponnesian War was the establishment of Spartan dominance over Greece. With Athens defeated, Sparta became the preeminent power, imposing its oligarchic system on former Athenian allies and other city-states. The Spartans installed pro-Spartan governments, known as the “decarchies,” in many places, which often ruled harshly and were deeply unpopular.
Fall of Athens: The once-powerful Athenian Empire was dismantled. Athens was forced to dismantle its Long Walls and fortifications, reduce its fleet to twelve ships, and become a subordinate ally of Sparta. The democratic government was overthrown and replaced by an oligarchy known as the Thirty Tyrants, who ruled oppressively and sparked significant internal strife until democracy was restored a year later in 403 BC.
Economic and Population Decline: The war devastated the economies of many Greek city-states. Prolonged warfare had led to the destruction of crops, loss of life, and disruption of trade. Athens, in particular, faced severe economic hardships, including a significant loss of revenue from its former empire. The overall population of Greece declined due to the death toll from battles, sieges, and the plague that had struck Athens early in the war.
Shift in Military Power: The war highlighted the importance of naval power and showcased the changing nature of Greek warfare. Athens’ innovative use of its navy had prolonged the war and inflicted considerable damage on Spartan interests. Conversely, Sparta’s eventual construction of a navy, with the support of Persian funds, was crucial to its final victory. This shift indicated a broader trend towards more complex and varied military strategies in Greek conflicts.
Persian Influence: The war saw increased Persian involvement in Greek affairs. Initially, Persia supported Sparta financially to weaken Athens, but later, Persian influence extended over the weakened Greek city-states. This intervention reasserted Persian power in the region, particularly in Asia Minor, where Greek cities found themselves under Persian control or influence once more.
Cultural and Intellectual Impact: The Peloponnesian War had a lasting impact on Greek culture and intellectual life. The war’s brutality, political upheavals, and the eventual fall of Athens led to a period of reflection and philosophical inquiry. Figures like Socrates, whose ideas were influenced by the war’s events, and historians like Thucydides, who provided a detailed account of the conflict, left a significant legacy that shaped Western thought.
End of the Golden Age: The war marked the end of the Athenian Golden Age. The period of artistic, architectural, and intellectual achievements that had flourished under Pericles was abruptly halted. The focus shifted from cultural pursuits to survival and recovery in the post-war era.
Political Fragmentation: In the longer term, the Peloponnesian War weakened the overall unity of the Greek city-states. The power vacuum and continued rivalries among city-states led to ongoing conflicts, such as the Corinthian War (395-387 BC) and later the rise of Thebes. This fragmentation made Greece more vulnerable to external threats, ultimately paving the way for the rise of Macedon under Philip II and his son Alexander the Great.